Diversity Training Essay

Assorted variety preparing is preparing planned to increment social mindfulness, information and abilities, and increment the consideration of personality gatherings. This at last is intended to help an association advance an increasingly various corporate culture, secure against social liberties issues, and advance better cooperation. This is practiced through preparing in correspondences to all degrees of an association, fortification of approaches and systems to be progressively comprehensive, structure and usage of techniques that limit the potential issues related with lower decent variety levels or assorted variety mindfulness. TYPES: Assorted variety Training Workshops * Diversity preparing workshops last around a few hours, and courses last at least four days. Workshops and courses show compromise aptitudes, groundwork for increments in racial and sexual orientation assorted variety, universal work and protecting against badgering. Tragically, assorted variety preparing through workshops or courses creates just momentary constructive outcomes. It appears that the â€Å"afterglow† of this sort of preparing blurs quick. Assorted variety Offices * Having an assorted variety office gives more preparing open doors than a workshop or course does. Assorted variety workplaces can offer follow-up meetings notwithstanding the more broad three-day to one-week decent variety instructional courses they direct. Sojourner Training * Companies that contend in the global commercial center use sojourner preparing to help representatives who will move to an outside nation. When representatives experience this kind of decent variety preparing preceding overseeing or working in outside tasks, their viability increments. Sojourner preparing additionally gives advising to assist representatives with rearranging to their arrival home. Continuous Reinforcement * Rather than basically offering a momentary course or workshop, organizations that have a genuine effect in decent variety preparing are those that training equity on a progressing premise. In these organizations, decent variety isn't only an extra yet additionally a significant piece of the corporate culture. As it were, to genuinely accomplish decent variety in the work environment, an organization must try to do it says others should do. Instances of continuous fortification are recruiting a different worker pool, acknowledgment for assorted variety endeavors, permitting minority gatherings to shape bolster gatherings and praising societies by means of uncommon projects. The most effective method to Develop a Diversity Training Program Building up an assorted variety preparing program for your association regularly includes surveying your team’s needs, structuring materials that mirror your preparation necessities, conveying workshops and reference materials and assessing your endeavors. Organizations that execute decent variety preparing projects to advocate work environment assorted variety will in general have higher representative consistency standards, improved confidence, diminished claims and improved enrolling. Stage 1 Start a decent variety preparing program advancement venture by recognizing the task backers and partners. Meeting these individuals, lead center gatherings or direct online studies to assemble contribution about the current condition in your association and what practices need to change. Normal themes incorporate overseeing change, compelling correspondence, social mindfulness, managing sexual orientation issues and compromise. Stage 2 Characterize targets for your program. For instance, you might need to limit miscommunication and confusion at work. You may likewise need representatives to perceive and esteem contrasts in age, understanding, social traditions, feeling of time and disposition. Accomplishing these sorts of targets empowers you to deal with a socially various and multi-generational workforce and resolve minor episodes before they become more serious issues. Stage 3 Structure your workshop. Get ready introduction materials to educate members about definitions and ideas related with assorted variety. Scatter significant stretches of guidance with intuitive exercises, for example, ice breakers, pretending activities and contextual investigations. Guarantee your substance streams easily and covers all the applicable points. Stage 4 Convey your workshop at group gatherings, organization occasions or separate instructional courses. Choose to what extent your meeting should keep going, contingent upon the quantity of themes you need to cover, the quantity of members and the participant’s nature with the substance. Stage 5 Make a test to test workers on their insight into decent variety themes. Stage 6 Assess your program’s viability by making an online study to survey member fulfillment. Talk with chiefs a while after your occasion to check whether individuals have changed their conduct and gotten increasingly lenient of individuals whose qualities may vary from their own. The Advantages of Diversity Training Less Lawsuits: One of primary driver of worry in upper administration is claims documented by representatives for segregation, lewd behavior and improper excusal. Decent variety preparing helps all workers in an organization to realize what the laws are and what the organization strategies are. With preparing, individuals realize what worthy conduct is when managing a subordinate, friend or somebody you feel is not quite the same as you in a manner, for example, race, religion, nationality or physical capacities. As a rule, a circumstance is deciphered diversely by the individuals in question, prompting mistaken assumptions and charges of bad behavior. When the representatives have clear rules on how they ought to carry on towards each other in the working environment, there are hardly any errors and, hence, less claims. Assorted variety preparing strengthens the arrangements that are as of now set up to secure representatives and the organization. Expanded Job Satisfaction: When decent variety preparing is fruitful, people are more joyful with their occupations. The preparation encourages them to comprehend what is anticipated from them and what they can anticipate from their friends and directors. During assorted variety preparing, individuals get the chance to pose inquiry and examine their interests. Alongside this information and the sentiment of being heard, individuals have a superior comprehension of the work environment condition also, their job in it. This activity fulfillment prompts a higher degree of consistency. Content workers are more averse to stop and search for new openings. Workers cheerful in their employments are increasingly inspired and are progressively gainful. These improved perspectives help the organization all in all to run all the more effectively. Increasingly Diverse Workplace: Diversity preparing brings up how indistinguishable individuals are, regardless of whether on a superficial level, they appear to be changed. This information prompts recruiting administrators and HR staff being progressively open to employing individuals from all foundations and different backgrounds. Having an increasingly different working environment makes the work place an all the more intriguing condition. The preparation likewise binds together individuals with differing foundations around a shared objective. With legitimate preparing, a broadened working environment has everybody cooperating as a group to enable the organization to succeed and develop. Impediments of Diversity Training Recruiting Manager Authority: for the sake of expanding work environment decent variety, businesses may feel compelled to select candidates from different gatherings. Many recruiting chiefs accept that business decrees concerning expanding decent variety expect them to neglect all the more reasonably qualified candidates for candidates who bring assorted variety †not really ability †to the association. In these conditions, employing administrators may start to hate how expanding work environment decent variety influences their capacity to practice free judgment, just as their clout in settling on recruiting choices. Working environment Relationships: Employees who understand the company’s objective is to build assorted variety may feel they are less significant on the off chance that they don’t speak to the normal different populaces that attention on race, sex, national beginning, age and incapacity. In a working environment where representatives don’t have a place with differing populaces, these workers may feel underestimated and neglected dependent on the way that they don’t speak to assorted variety. They additionally may accept that representatives from differing bunches have more open doors for progression, in this manner disturbing the working connections they once had with associates and colleagues. Heap Accommodations: Although the reason of work environment decent variety is common regard, setting facilities for various different groups’ expectations can get troublesome on businesses, making assorted variety the executives troublesome. Representative demands and work imperatives dependent on religion, national root, sexual orientation and race can get overpowering if your work environment has so much assorted variety that it takes a full-time HR staff part just to monitor pleasing the requirements of different gatherings in the working environment. Instances of pleasing various assorted populaces incorporate making an interpretation of materials into numerous dialects and having mediators available for gatherings with representatives, obliging worker nonattendances because of strict practices or inabilities, just as changing business hours to match with favored calendars for workers with various work styles and individual commitments. Assorted variety Training at Infosys A worldwide organization must mirror the assorted variety of the world it serves. Their representatives speak to the amplest conceivable assortment of nationalities, societies, sexual orientation characters, business chronicles, and levels of physical capacity. They select representatives from worldwide ability pools and give ways to proficient development to all citizenry. Inside such a differing organization, individuals bring to the work environment differentiating assessments and perspectives. As these individuals cooperate, they grow new thoughts, strategies and points of view. Infosys perceives and advances this intensity of decent variety to drive development. Infosys effectively encourages inclusivity across specialty units and friends workplaces. They urge workers to concentrate on their shared characteristics and de-accentuate contrasts. Inclusivity eventually makes for progressively educated and touchy groups that can serve clients better. Infosys was th

Compare And Contrast Ancient India And Ancient China Essay Example For Students

Investigate Ancient India And Ancient China Essay The World is always paying off debtors to China for its advancements. Old China was outrageous development and huge numbers of its revelations are still being used today. This is the thing that Robert Temple, the creator of The Genius of China 3000 years of science, revelation and innovation. The book depends on 11 principle parts of Chinese advancement. Inside these 11 classes, there are 3 primary parts that contain the most huge developments. Robert Temple thinks the main part of his models in these three classifications, farming, local and mechanical innovation , and designing. Sanctuaries models were not constrained to these fields of development. The Chinese exceeded expectations in numerous different regions, including arithmetic, fighting and transportation, to give some examples. In spite of the fact that Temple expounded on eleven fields of creation, I feel that these three segments contain the best instances of Chinese development, and the obligation that the advanced world owes China. The principal fundamental territory is the field of designing. Inside this part, the improvement of iron and steel is the best accomplishment. The improvement of iron and steel prompted different advances. By in any event the fourth century the Chinese have created shoot heaters to get cast iron from iron mineral. This was 1200 years before the principal impact heater appeared in Europe. The reasons that the creator provided for clarify the reasons why the Chinese built up this innovation are basic. The Chinese approached a lot of earth, the key fixing in making impact heaters. The Chinese likewise made sense of that by including a substance they called :Black Earth, they could bring down the softening purpose of iron. Another significant innovation of the Chinese, that prompted different accomplishments, is steel. The basic conviction today is that Henry Bessemer found the way toward refining iron into steel. The truth of the matter is Chinese had built up the procedure to refine iron into steel in the second century BC The Chinese discovered that by infusing oxygen into the impact heater, they could expel the carbon from the iron. The Chinese considered this procedure the hundred refinings technique since they rehashed the procedure that multiple occasions. The completed item was profoundly prized in China for its quality and capacity to hold an edge on a blade. The Chinese would weld the steel onto more vulnerable iron therefore making a solid edge and a predominant weapon. The Chinese iron and steel laborers were the best at making various kinds of metals into current occasions. Be that as it may, at that point, nobody else could have done as such at that point, since iron existed no place else yet in China. The Chinese created the chain siphon in the principal century AD The chain siphon permits water to the siphoned from lower to higher heights. The chain siphons were utilized for depleting and siphoning in structural building, yet what is increasingly significant is it was utilized for water system. Water system takes into consideration more noteworthy and progressively exceptional cultivating, along these lines bringing about a superior harvest yield. With the more prominent harvest yields bigger populaces can be upheld. The chain siphon was traded to all pieces of the world by method of visiting envoys and dignitaries. The principal European chain siphon showed up in the sixteenth century, and was an immediate duplicate of the Chinese rendition. The second region of incredible Chinese accomplishment is in household and modern innovation. The most perceived Chinese innovation is in the field of household and mechanical innovation, paper. Paper was created around the second century BC and was utilized as garments. One probably won't accept that paper could be utilized as garments, yet the paper made around then utilized thicker and harder paper strands. In addition to the fact that paper was utilized for attire, it was additionally utilized for military body defensive layer. The Chinese discovered that creased pieces of paper could stop the infiltration of bolts. The paper defensive layer was standard issue with Chinese land and ocean units. Papers composing property was not found till around one century after its disclosure. The most punctual case of composing on paper was discovered a desert military post. .ufb4fb0bf756c6e4fbb4f9303f2fc1bf9 , .ufb4fb0bf756c6e4fbb4f9303f2fc1bf9 .postImageUrl , .ufb4fb0bf756c6e4fbb4f9303f2fc1bf9 .focused content zone { min-stature: 80px; position: relative; } .ufb4fb0bf756c6e4fbb4f9303f2fc1bf9 , .ufb4fb0bf756c6e4fbb4f9303f2fc1bf9:hover , .ufb4fb0bf756c6e4fbb4f9303f2fc1bf9:visited , .ufb4fb0bf756c6e4fbb4f9303f2fc1bf9:active { border:0!important; } .ufb4fb0bf756c6e4fbb4f9303f2fc1bf9 .clearfix:after { content: ; show: table; clear: both; } .ufb4fb0bf756c6e4fbb4f9303f2fc1bf9 { show: square; progress: foundation shading 250ms; webkit-change: foundation shading 250ms; width: 100%; darkness: 1; change: mistiness 250ms; webkit-change: murkiness 250ms; foundation shading: #95A5A6; } .ufb4fb0bf756c6e4fbb4f9303f2fc1bf9:active , .ufb4fb0bf756c6e4fbb4f9303f2fc1bf9:hover { obscurity: 1; progress: haziness 250ms; webkit-progress: obscurity 250ms; foundation shading: #2C3E50; } .ufb4fb0bf756c6e4fbb4f9303f2fc1bf9 .focused content territory { width: 100%; position: relati ve; } .ufb4fb0bf756c6e4fbb4f9303f2fc1bf9 .ctaText { fringe base: 0 strong #fff; shading: #2980B9; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: intense; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; content design: underline; } .ufb4fb0bf756c6e4fbb4f9303f2fc1bf9 .postTitle { shading: #FFFFFF; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: 600; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; width: 100%; } .ufb4fb0bf756c6e4fbb4f9303f2fc1bf9 .ctaButton { foundation shading: #7F8C8D!important; shading: #2980B9; outskirt: none; fringe sweep: 3px; box-shadow: none; text dimension: 14px; text style weight: striking; line-tallness: 26px; moz-fringe span: 3px; content adjust: focus; content improvement: none; content shadow: none; width: 80px; min-tallness: 80px; foundation: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/modules/intelly-related-posts/resources/pictures/straightforward arrow.png)no-rehash; position: outright; right: 0; top: 0; } .ufb4fb0bf756c6e4fbb4f9303f2fc1bf9:hover .ctaButton { foundation shading: #34495E!important; } .ufb4fb0b f756c6e4fbb4f9303f2fc1bf9 .focused content { show: table; tallness: 80px; cushioning left: 18px; top: 0; } .ufb4fb0bf756c6e4fbb4f9303f2fc1bf9-content { show: table-cell; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; cushioning right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-adjust: center; width: 100%; } .ufb4fb0bf756c6e4fbb4f9303f2fc1bf9:after { content: ; show: square; clear: both; } READ: Journalism From China with Love Graduate Admis EssayThe paper discovered goes back to 110 AD and contained two dozen decipherable characters. The region that let China develop and extend was the advancements in the region of horticulture. The best accomplishment in the field of horticulture is push development and serious hoeing. In Europe, likewise with the remainder of the world, they rehearsed disperse seed cultivating. Disperse seed cultivating is the act of tossing the seed onto the fields indiscriminately. By tossing the seed haphazardly, a large portion of the seeds would not develop and make it difficult to weed t he field. The Chinese then again, planted individual seeds and columns, along these lines lessening seed misfortune. The planting of yields in lines likewise took into consideration concentrated hoeing, which thusly diminish weeds. Another significant progression in the field of horticulture is the seed drill. The seed drill supplements the column cultivating of the Chinese. The seed drill is a gadget that plants the seed into the ground. It replaces the rancher to plant the seeds by hand, in this way permitting the rancher to plant more grounds. The primary seed drill was acquainted with Europe in sixteenth century, 3500 years after the Chinese had imagined it. All in all, I accept that the creator has demonstrated his unique thought, that the cutting edge world is in the red to China. The creator has given numerous instances of Chinese development and insight that are found being used today. Chinese advancement in agribusiness has not just permitted the Chinese to develop, it has additionally permitted the cutting edge world to develop. The development of these different nations is straightforwardly connected to the creations that they replicated from the Chinese. A large number of the Chinese designing accomplishments are as yet drilled today. The way toward refining iron into steel is as yet utilized today, however the procedure has been refined. The engineered overpass, designed by the Chinese in the principal century AD, is as yet the scaffold of decision when one needs to traverse a huge span. The best region of Chinese innovation is in horticulture. The Chinese exceeded expectations in cultivating, in addition to the fact that they discovered the seed drill, they found line cultivating that is as yet utilized today. I would prescribe this book with one needs to find out about the past greatness of China and the immense potentional of things to come. It gave inside and out perspectives into every Chinese innovation, while not over doing the techical explaination. The Author is clear and compact on his point, the advanced world is owing debtors to the Chinese. He gave numerous instances of Chinese invoation, and how the remainder of the world replicated the Chinese. Not wrapped up of the world duplicate Chinese innovations, they asserted that they were the first to design it. The creator made me fully aware of the enormity of anicent China. What the creator, Robert Temple, did gave me much more motivation to regard China.

Grades, GPA, and Confusion - UGA Undergraduate Admissions

Grades, GPA, and Confusion - UGA Undergraduate Admissions Grades, GPA, and Confusion I have said it before and I will say it again, three letters cause more confusion in college admissions that any other; GPA. I have made it a point this year to try and stay away from the word GPA as much as possible (unless I am forced to talk about mid-ranges), and today brought this topic to mind again for me. I work witha great team of people, and one groups focus during this time of year is to review and evaluate high school transcripts. At times, I pitch in and help a little bit, both to make sure everything is going well, but also so I can look at the transcripts for our freshman applicants and see if there are any new trends at the high schools. In looking at about 30 transcripts today, I noticed that a number of schools, from New York to Tennessee to Georgia, are starting to add weight to teachers grades. For example, if a student receives an 87 from his AP Lit. teacher for the Fall semester, some schools are now adding points to the 87 grade (generally somewhere from 2-10 points), so the teacher grade at school X that adds 7 points now becomes a 94. While I am all for schools having a say about their own grading system, I am worried that this is being done to have an impact on college admissions offices, and that the high schools do not really understand how this might affect their students. From my years of seeing a wide variety of grading systems (letter grades, numerical grades, narrative grade reports, non-standard letter grades, etc.), I have noticed, at least at UGA, that this type of grade alteration is actually hurting some of the best students at these schools. At UGA, we look at individual grades, and if a school does not add weight to the individual grades, we will then add .5 to each AP or IB grade (4 point scale used), so a B grade would go from a 3.0 to a 3.5. If a school does add weight to the individual grades, whether it is 2 points or 10 points, we will then not double dip and add any more weight, as this would not be equal. At this point, most people start to think that the individual school adding weightlooks great, and want their own school to do this. And yes, for some students in some schools, this does add a little more weight than UGAs method.BUT WAIT!! What about those students at the very top, taking a large number of AP classes and making mostly As? Sam took 5 classes last semester, 3 of which were APs, and made a grade of 95 in all of them (and an A is a 90 or better at his school). The school then adds 7 points to each AP grade, so he now hastwo grades of95 and three grades of 102. To UGA, we look at this and see 5 As, so Sam has a 4.00 GPA, and do not add any weight because the school already did. But if Sams school did not add any weight, we would then see five grades of 95, add a .5 for each of the AP grades, and his GPA to us would be a 4.30. This is just one semester, not three years of grades, but you see the point. When a high school tries to work the system, sometimes it does not really work out the way they want. What can you do? Do your best, challenge yourself, know how both your high school and the colleges to which you apply evaluate grades, and trust that UGA and other colleges like us try our best to look at everyone on a level playing field.

The Presence Of God Christ, Holy Spirit, And Redemption

BETHLEHEM SEMINARY THE PRESENCE OF GOD SUBMITTED TO PROF. RICK SHENK IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THEO 6520: CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE 2: CHRIST, HOLY SPIRIT, AND REDEMPTION BY RYAN THOM DECEMBER 10, 2013 THE PRESENCE OF GOD God’s presence can mean a lot of different things to many different individuals. It may mean the warmth that he gets when singing a Christmas song with family, or the tears of joy she gets when she is in prayer with her closest friends. God’s presence may be described as coming through times of worship in song, or during a poignant point of a powerful presentation. But what really is God’s presence? Introduction When we read the pages of the Old Testament canon we find the presence of God spoken throughout. The most frequent Hebrew word for â€Å"presence† is panim (× ¤Ã– ¸Ã– ¼Ã—  Ã– ´Ã—™× ), which translates â€Å"face or presence,† carrying the idea of an intimate manifestation of the presence of God (Numbers 6:25-26). In the New Testament canon we find the word prosopon (Ï€Ï ÃÅ'ÏÆ'ωπÎ ¿ÃŽ ½), which generally has the same meaning, translating as â€Å"face† or â€Å"mask.† The reality of the presence of God can be interpreted in many different ways, and it is a reality that is significant for the child of God. The central issue I am going to address in this paper is the presupposition that someone can lead another person into the presence of God. I’d like to make the case that there is only one who can do this, namely, Jesus Christ, who has â€Å"†¦entered, not into holy places madeShow MoreRelatedFaith736 Words   |  3 Pagesof the God-fearing people of the land can unite. I believe that there is only one God and this God is manifested in three persons-Father, Son and Holy Spirit (trinity). He is the creator of the universe and of all life, the sustainer of all things, who is infinite in glory, wisdom, holiness, justice, power and love. 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These are the foundations for the way I liveRead MoreThe Spirit Of The Holy Spirit1137 Words   |  5 Pages The Holy Spirit gives different gifts to different people. There are multiple ways to use these gifts and the Spirit works in differing ways. More importantly, these gifts are given by the same Spirit, the different ways to use them come from the same Lord and the same God is making these different gifts happen in everyone (1 Corinthians 12:4-6). The Holy Spirit gives these gifts to everyone that is a part of the body of believers (1 Corinthians 12:4). The way that the Holy Spirit is given to eachRead MoreJesus Christ Into Your Life1545 Words   |  7 PagesJesus Christ into your life, your spirit is in the same sad shape as a smoker’s diseased lungs. Our spirits were creat ed by God to be in perfect union and fellowship with Him. The spirit does not take in oxygen like the lungs, but it does take in God’s life-giving power. The spirit, that all believers have inside us, is sustained by the perfect love of our Heavenly Father and by the freedom and peace that only a relationship with Jesus Christ can provide. So what is this new life that God offersRead MoreEssay on Confirmation in the Catholic Church1646 Words   |  7 PagesInitiation for Catholics and a Sacrament of faith in Gods fidelity to us Confirmation is the moment when two things are confirmed. The candidate confirms his/her faith in Christ and takes full responsibility for that faith and for membership of the community of faith, which we call the church. God, through the Bishop, confirms Gods claim on the candidates life. Whatever happens at confirmation, the moment for those who are confirmed is a significant one because

Juvenile Delinquency A Complex Social Phenomenon Of...

Introduction Given the range and significance of juvenile delinquency, the demand for understanding strategies has become apparent in order to combat a complex social phenomenon of criminal behavior in juveniles. The juvenile justice system is an intricate part of juvenile justice intertwining law enforcement, court and correctional agencies along with the community when dealing with juvenile delinquents. Thus, understanding delinquents and how they behave is crucial when considering the effectiveness of prevention to commit further crimes. Theories of juvenile justice causation enables all to understand what the strains and breakdowns in social processes are to assist in the production of conformity. During the former years of juvenile delinquency, treatment of children changed how society viewed the social and special needs of children by examining the theories of what could have caused youth to commit crimes. Juvenile Delinquency Theories â€Å"Symbolic-interactionist theories of delinquency are concerned less with values than with the way in which social meanings and definitions can help produce delinquent behavior,† (The Gale Group, Inc., 2001). In other words, symbolic interactionism recognizes the theories of delinquency through the eyes of values versus socialism. Earlier interactionist theories based their theories on how adolescents acquired meanings and definitions from others, but as time has passed, now focuses on the role of official control agenciesShow MoreRelatedFemale Juveniles Are The Most Vulnerable927 Words   |  4 PagesFemale juveniles are known to be the most vulnerable. If they are growing up in poverty or suffering from abuse, their delinquent behavior are often leads to self-destruction. Female juveniles will most likely grow up to join street gangs, drop out of school, or become teenage mothers. Girls are the fastest growing segment of the juvenile just ice system with minority females disproportionately represented among delinquent girls; two-thirds are girls of color. The majority have been subjected to someRead MoreJuvenile Delinquency3872 Words   |  16 PagesJuvenile delinquency Juvenile delinquency, also known as juvenile offending, or youth crime, is participation in illegal behavior by minors (juveniles) (individuals younger than the statutory age of majority).Most legal systems prescribe specific procedures for dealing with juveniles, such as juvenile detention centers, and courts. A juvenile delinquent is a person who is typically under the age of 18 and commits an act that otherwise would have been charged as a crime if they were an adult. DependingRead MoreJuvenile Delinquency3863 Words   |  16 PagesJuvenile delinquency Juvenile delinquency, also known as juvenile offending, or youth crime, is participation in illegal behavior by minors (juveniles) (individuals younger than the statutory age of majority).Most legal systems prescribe specific procedures for dealing with juveniles, such as juvenile detention centers, and courts. A juvenile delinquent is a person who is typically under the age of 18 and commits an act that otherwise would have been charged as a crime if they were an adult. DependingRead MoreJuvenile Delinquency : The Common Poor Parenting, Socioeconomic Status And Peer Pressure Essay1659 Words   |  7 PagesJuvenile delinquency is one of the most complex, interesting and challenging phenomena in Trinidad and Tobago. In recent years there have been a high proportion of juvenile males being arrested and remanded at the nation’s youth facilities. 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Sutherland proposed his theory of Differential Association in his Principles of Criminology textbook. Differential Association theory states that criminal behavior is learned behavior. Sutherland along with Richard Cloward, and Lloyd Ohlin attempted to explain this phenomenon by emphasizing the role of learning. To become a criminal, a person must not only be inclined toward illegal activity, he or she must also learn how to commit criminal actsRead MoreEssay on Criminological Theories13456 Words   |  54 PagesChapter 5. Chapter 6. Chapter 7. Chapter 8. Chapter 9. Chapter 10. Chapter 11. Chapter 12. 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This becomes relevant after the judgment in Roper Vs Simmons (1995) which states that there is a doubt as to whenRead MoreThe Label Gang : A Study Of 1313 Gangs Essay6194 Words   |  25 PagesWest, prison inmates, Mafioso and other organized criminals, motorcyclists, and groups of inner city youths. Despite its diverse application, the term gang almost always connotes involvement in disreputable or illegal activities. Social scientists use the term gang most frequently when describing groups of juveniles. This tendency dates back to Frederic Thrasher s The Gang: A Study of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago (1927). According to Thrasher, social conditions in the United States at the end of the nineteenthRead MoreChildren in Conflict to the Law12401 Words   |  50 PagesUnder R.A. 9344 a child who is 15 years of age at the time of the commission of offense are exempted from criminal liability, however the child shall be subjected to an intervention program provided by local social welfare development office who will determine appropriate programs and consultation with the client and to person having custody of the child. There are three types of delinquency: the first type is environment delinquent, they are usually occasional law breakers. The second type is

Marx and arnold †individual in the class Free Essays

Karl Marx was one of the most influential ideologues of all times. His ideas fired men to revolutions and empowered them as a class denoted by the proletariat to wage struggle against domination by the bourgeois. (Marx. We will write a custom essay sample on Marx and arnold – individual in the class or any similar topic only for you Order Now Engels. Et Al.:1998). His ideology of individual empowerment contributing to class control over society holds sway amongst a large swathe of humanity even to this day. While Marx was a powerful believer in individual power, it was through its regulation that change in society was brought about. This change was not the way a person pleased or sought it to be but on the basis of history and as per existing circumstances. (Marx. Engels: 1986).   In the struggle of the classes, Marx believed that it was individual influence as denoted in labor power which had been undermined over the years by the bourgeoisie. The control granted to individuals through their work denoted labor power which comprised of the prime energy which created a vital force in nations. (Marx: 1999). Marx values labor power as it is the only means which can produce more value than its worth, thus this is the productive value of individuals.   (Marx: 2003).   Class struggle as per Marx begins with individual power generated by personal toil which is coagulated to destroy those elements which work against their interests. Thus Marx believed that the exploitative nature of individual power particularly amongst the bourgeoisie will be brought to an end through collective authority of individuals of the proletariat. (Karl Marx: 2006). Marx states that each man in a capitalist system works in his own interest and thus ultimately results in the destruction of the organism as a whole. (Aron: 1965). The ideal structure for harnessing individual power is thus felt to be the communist system wherein the power of each individual can be channelised for the collective good. An individual’s role is related to his role in class and economic relations and thus his power is also channelised in that direction. (Marx: 1999). The view of individual power held by Marx is thus of production, material creation and contribution to the class struggle. The individual soul loses its power in the collectivity of the class to which he belongs. Arnold was a poet in the Victorian era who is said to have guidance and rationality in an age which was increasingly industrialized and when individuals were losing their moorings to increased vocationalisation of human activity. By adopting the analogies of the Barbarians, Philistines and Populace wherein individuality was subordinated, Arnold attempted to bring back a sense of power to the individual. (Arnold EB: 2006). Arnold’s philosophy of individualism was based on the ability of the individual to change society by following a contrarian approach rather than just blindly following reality. Arnold abhorred the average man who he believed failed to contribute to quality in society. It is the individual who is not average, the, â€Å"remnant† as he called it who contributes most to the social order and democracy. A remnant is required to be humble and should look upwards to some standard. Once a majority of the people assume such a quality, as per Arnold, the whole society will rise above the normal. For raising such a social order, education was a key parameter. Education has to be humanist and religious and not merely utilitarian or sentimental. The scientific temper of education has been reducing the humane standards that people have.   There was a greater need for reinventing education to enable a holistic approach. (The Dialogue: 2006). Arnold calls for finding the best amongst oneself and then follow it. This self needs to be one which is the best and not what is upper most in the mind. An individual should not go against this, â€Å"best light† and ensure that this light is not darkness. (Arnold : 2000). Pursuit of culture which generates beauty and intelligence or what Arnold has called sweetness and light in individual is its main purpose. (Arnold : 2000)   Action by individuals should be guided by such sweetness and light. There should be no fear that such men cannot bear the trials of a tough life, by avoiding rough action. By relying on less random action people can confront such acts. Arnold believed that the central theme of British society was assertion of personal liberty. However he was clearly against individualism resulting in anarchy. (Arnold : 2000) Arnolds identified religion as per Christ as a force which was based on individual proclivities acting on himself rather than injunctions from outside. Thus the individual can gain control over himself and thus contribute to society. (Style : 2006). Arnold spawned the movement of humanism in the United Staes which provided the guiding light of morality from past civilisations for individuals to survive in a world which was turning towards greater individualism and materialism. (New Humanism : 2006). The strength of Arnold’s style lay lies in his use of the satirical and analytic to denote his theories which made them more explicit. (Genre : 2006). The individual power denoted by Marx is one which has been harnessed for creation, production and destruction. (Marx. Engels: 1986). It is power in the individual for action resulting from his labor, as against intrinsic power developed through intermix with education and culture. Marx wants to harness individual power to change society, to bring class struggle; Arnold wants individual power to raise the resistance of humans to survive in an increasingly materialistic and industrialized World. (Marx. Engels: 1986). The strength or power in an individual as per Arnold came from within, while Marx believed that individual power came from the society and the environment surrounding him. The power of individuals as per Marx rests in his ability to produce value through labor, it is to be harnessed collectively, on the other hand, Arnold believes in power of the individual which is derived from his culture and sensitivities and which guides him to do the right things for the overall good of society. (Arnold : 2000). Thus there was a major differentiation between the identification and use of power between Marx and Arnold. Reference 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Dialogue. 2006. The Dialogue Of The Mind With Itself† http://www.nhumanities.org/arnold.htm† (30 May 2006). 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Culture and Anarchy. http://www.authorama.com/culture-and-anarchy-4.html. (31 May 2006). 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Arnold, Matthew. 2000. Culture and Anarchy : An Essay in Political an Social Criticism (Collected Works of Matthew Arnold). Classic Books. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Arnold, Matthew. EB 2006. â€Å"Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica. Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Premium Service.http://wwwa.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9009580. (30 May 2006). 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   New Humanism. (2006). In Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica. Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Premium Service: http://wwwa.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9055477. (30 May 2006). 6.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Style. 2006. http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/arnold/style1.html. (31 May 2006). 7.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.victorianweb.org/genre/ej/2c4.html. (31 May 2006). 8.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Karl Marx. 2006. http://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/classics/manifesto.htmlKarl Marx. (31 May 2006). 9.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Marx. 2003. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marx/. (31 May 2006). 10.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Aron, Raymond. 1965. Main Currents in Sociological Thought. Basic Books. New York. 11.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Marx, Karl. 1999. Das Kapital. Gateway. New York. 12.   Marx, Karl. Engels, Friedrich McLellan, David. 1998. The Communist Manifesto. Oxford University Press, New York. New Ed edition. 13.   Marx Engels. 1986.   Collected Works. International Publishers. How to cite Marx and arnold – individual in the class, Essay examples

A role of the art in the expression of inner thoughts and beauty Essay Example For Students

A role of the art in the expression of inner thoughts and beauty Essay The Arts play a large role in the expression of inner thoughts and beauty in my life. From dance and music to abstract art our concept of life is shown through the various ways in which we interpret it. We use the Arts as a means of touching that part of us that we cannot reach with Physical Science, Social Science, or any of the Humanities. The arts allow us to be as specific or as abstract as we please. It helps us become closer to ourselves and to others around us. Though there has been a lot of confusion as to what the true definition of good art is, how we show others what is going on in our minds and inner souls cannot be judged, graded, criticized or revised by anyone other than ourselves. The arts play a valued role in creating cultures and developing and documenting civilizations. The arts teach us how to communicate through creative expression. Show us how to understand human experiences, past and present. Prepare us to adapt to and respect the ways others think, work, and express themselves. Music, singing, dancing, poetry, and sketching are just a few of the different forms of art that I use to express myself in a way that I enjoy. Because each art discipline appeals to different senses and expresses itself through different media, each adds a special richness to the learning environment. Arts help people Learn to identify, appreciate, and participate in the traditional and non-traditional art forms of their own communities and the communities of others. Art teaches us how to be imaginative, creative, and reflective. Different art forms help us develop the verbal and nonverbal abilities necessary for lifelong learning. The intellectual demands of the arts help us develop problem-solving abilities and such powerful thinking skills as analyzing and evaluating. Numerous studies point toward a consistent and positive comparison between concrete education in the arts and student achievement in other subjects. A program in arts education would engage students in a process that helps them develop the self-esteem, self-discipline, cooperation, and self-motivation necessary for success in life. Most important, the arts should be experienced and studied for their own true value. If art was not present in my life, I know that I would be missing so much. I would not be able to do the things that I love to do each day. The only way to express yourself is through art, and the presence of art in the lives of todays society plays a big role. People listen to music every day, they dance, and sing. For many peoples art is a way of life, and without it they would be lost. Art is the only way to express ones true feelings. Without art the world would be a dull and sad place. People would not be able to communicate in the same sense that art allows them to. Art shows peoples individualism. Without art wouldnt we all be the same?

3 Cases of Nonequivalent List Items

3 Cases of Nonequivalent List Items 3 Cases of Nonequivalent List Items 3 Cases of Nonequivalent List Items By Mark Nichol When a list of items in a sentence is not a simple matter of a, b, and c, writers can easily err in erroneously constructing the sentence, mangling the syntax in the mistaken belief that nonequivalent items are equivalent. Each of the sentences below presents a distinct problem with parallel structuring of lists, and the discussions and revisions that follow the examples explain and resolve the problems. 1. If you have a kitten, pregnant, or nursing cat, we recommend that you feed it kitten food. This sentence reads as if it refers to three types of cats: kitten cats, pregnant cats, and nursing cats. However, â€Å"kitten cat† is redundant, so kitten must appear syntactically distinct from the two other types of cats mentioned. The references to those types may be combined into a compound phrase, but it must follow a conjunction and a shared article, and the punctuation between them must be omitted to allow them to share the article: â€Å"If you have a kitten or a pregnant or nursing cat, we recommend that you feed it kitten food.† 2. Companies need to embrace innovation, cultural change, and embark on the digital-transformation process to become more nimble and keep up with the changing business environment. This sentence attempts to refer to three actions: embrace of innovation, embrace of cultural change, and embarkation on the digital-transformation process. But â€Å"cultural change† is not provided with its own verb, and the comma that precedes the phrase prevents it from sharing one with innovation. In order to share, the comma must be replaced by a conjunction. In addition, because such a revision results in two, not three, list items (the combination â€Å"embrace innovation and cultural change† and the phrase about embarkation), no internal punctuation is required: â€Å"Companies need to embrace innovation and cultural change and embark on the digital transformation process to become more nimble and keep up with the changing business environment.† 3. Factors influencing technology selection and implementation include the entity’s goals, marketplace needs, competitive requirements, and the associated costs and benefits. Because â€Å"associated costs and benefits† is only tangentially related to the entity, it should not be part of the list describing various aspects of the entity; the sentence must be revised so that â€Å"competitive requirements† is clearly the final item in the list: â€Å"Factors influencing technology selection and implementation include the entity’s goals, marketplace needs, and competitive requirements and the associated costs and benefits.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Comma After i.e. and e.g.List of Greek Words in the English Language15 Names and Descriptions of Effects

Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, Liberias Iron Lady

Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, Liberias Iron Lady Ellen Johnson was born on  October  29, 1938, in Monrovia, the capital of Liberia, amongst the descendants of original colonists of Liberia (ex-African slaves from America, who promptly on arrival set about enslaving the indigenous people using the social system of their old American masters as a basis for their new society). These descendants are known in Liberia as Americo-Liberians. Causes of Liberias Civil Conflict The social inequalities between indigenous Liberians and the Americo-Liberians have lead to much of the political and social strife in the country, as leadership bounced between dictators representing opposing groups (Samuel Doe replacing William Tolbert, Charles Taylor replacing Samuel Doe). Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf rejects the suggestion that she is one of the elite: If such a class existed, it has been obliterated over the last few years from intermarriages and social integration. Gaining an Education From 1948 to 55 Ellen Johnson studied accounts and economics at the College of West Africa in Monrovia. After marriage at the age of 17 to James Sirleaf, she traveled to America (in 1961) and continued her studies, achieving a degree from the University of Colorado. From 1969 to 71 she read economics at Harvard, gaining a masters degree in public administration. Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf then returned to Liberia and began working in William Tolberts (True Whig Party) government. A Start in Politics Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf served as Minister of Finance from 1972 to 73 but left after a disagreement over public spending. As the 70s progressed, life under Liberias one-party state became more polarised- to the benefit of the Americo-Liberian elite. On April 12, 1980, Master Sergeant Samuel Kayon Doe, a member of the indigenous Krahn ethnic group, seized power in a military coup and President William Tolbert was executed along with several members of his cabinet by firing squad. Life under Samuel Doe With the Peoples Redemption Council now in power, Samuel Doe began a purge of government. Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf narrowly escaped- choosing exile in Kenya. From 1983 to 85 she served as Director of Citibank in Nairobi, but when Samuel Doe declared himself president of the Republic in 1984 and unbanned political parties, she decided to return. During the 1985 elections, Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf campaigned against Doe and was placed under house arrest. An Economists Life in Exile Sentenced to ten years in prison, Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf spent just a short time incarcerated, before being allowed to leave the country once again as an exile. During the 1980s she served as Vice President of both the African Regional Office of Citibank, in Nairobi, and of (HSCB) Equator Bank, in Washington. Back in Liberia civil unrest erupted once more. On 9 September 1990, Samuel Doe was killed by a splinter group from Charles Taylors National Patriotic Front of Liberia. A New Regime From 1992 to 97 Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf worked as Assistant Administrator, and then Director, of the UN Development Program Regional Bureau for Africa (essentially an Assistant Secretary-General of the UN). Meanwhile, in Liberia, an interim government was put in power, led by a succession of four un-elected officials (the last of whom, Ruth Sando Perry, was Africas first female leader). By 1996 the presence of West African peacekeepers created a lull in the civil war, and elections were held. A First Attempt at the Presidency Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf returned to Liberia in 1997 to contest the election. She came second to Charles Taylor (gaining 10% of the vote compared to his 75%) out of a field of 14 candidates. The election was declared free and fair by international observers. (Johnson-Sirleaf campaigned against Taylor and was charged with treason.) By 1999 civil war had returned to Liberia, and Taylor was accused of interfering with his neighbors, fomenting unrest and rebellion. A New Hope from Liberia On 11 August 2003, after much persuasion, Charles Taylor handed power over to his deputy Moses Blah. The new interim government and rebel groups signed an historic peace accord and set about installing a new head of state. Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf was proposed as a possible candidate, but in the end, the diverse groups selected Charles Gyude Bryant, a political neutral. Johnson-Sirleaf served as head of the Governance Reform Commission. Liberias 2005 Election Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf played an active role in the transitional government as the country prepared for the 2005 elections and eventually stood for president against her rival the ex-international footballer, George Manneh Weah. Despite the elections being called fair and orderly, Weah repudiated the result, which gave a majority to Johnson-Sirleaf, and the announcement of Liberias new president was postponed, pending an investigation. On  November 23, 2005, Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf was declared the winner of the Liberian election and confirmed as the countrys next president. Her inauguration, attended by the likes of US First Lady Laura Bush and Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, took place on Monday, January 16, 2006.Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, the divorced mother of four boys and grandmother to six children, is Liberias first elected female president, as well as the first elected female leader on the continent.

Business and Economic Forecasting Research Paper

Business and Economic Forecasting - Research Paper Example ant to note here that increase in wage rates will also results in increase in the spending power of the consumers and consumers will be willing to pay more for the products, thus it can have some positive effect on the economy. On the other hand the increase in the transportation costs will have double fold negative impact on the economy as the consumers will have to also bear the increased in the transportation costs. Hence, there can be different economic scenarios during different economic times. For instance, during the economic boom the increase in wage rates will not have strong negative impact on the economy, as the people will be ready to pay more for the products. However, the increase in the transportation costs will negatively influence the economy. But the increase in wages will have greater overall effect on the economy. On the other hand during recession the increase in the wages will have less positive and more negative impact, as still people will be more inclined towards saving and hence will be reluctant to pay more for the products. Similarly the increase in the transportation costs will have negative influence on the economy. Hence, it can be said that the wages will have more effect on the state of the economy in different time periods. So the slope value of wages will be high as compared to that of the transportation costs in the multiple regression formula (Hoshmand, 2009). During regression analysis and evaluating regression models it is important to check that whether the regression model is efficient or not. For this purpose different tests and methods are used by the researchers. One method used in this regard is the R2 test. The researchers use The R2 test in order to check whether the forecasted values are closely related and associated with the original values or not. This means that the high value of R2 depicts that there are less or few errors and residuals in the regression model. If the value of R2 is closer to one it means that

Wal-Mart v. Dukes, Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Wal-Mart v. Dukes, - Essay Example After numerous legal proceedings, the US court ruled in favor of the firm, an action that caused uproar within the US, thereby having significant impacts to the US business, with its rippling effects resonating for years to come. It is unlawful to mistreat employees based on miscellaneous unjustified features such as gender, race or cultural affiliation. Firms ought to implement policies such as efficiency, and skills in promotion of their employees (Copeland & Labuski, 2013). Additionally, equal prospects in the training of employees are significant. As such, owing to diverse similar cases, impacts on both the employers and the employees are severe. Such instances have adverse effects to employee motivation, thereby reducing their efficiency. I believe that the court ruling was erroneous (Copeland & Labuski, 2013). Besides, owing to the case, the firm may have experienced numerous losses, since the remaining employees may have experienced indirect impacts, owing to the reduction of the workforce. Established firms such as Wal-Mart ought to adhere to the implemented labor laws in their appraisal of employees, thereby eliminating recurrence of such instances. However, the firm may justify itself owing to the misconception that male employees tend to be more efficient. This misconception continues to be irrelevant since numerous female employees continue to prove even more efficient as compared to their male counterparts (Martens, 2012). Additionally, diverse labor unions have continually protested against Wal-Mart Stores, thereby criticizing it over the alleged abuse of the labor laws and accusations of gender and racial discriminations (Copeland & Labuski, 2013). It is also apparent that these women continually underwent dissimilar circumstances such as the low pay owing to their gender (Martens, 2012). Additionally, the promotion of the male employees was critically unjustified. The management Wal-Mart Stores failed to incorporate

Literature Review of Finance and Share Price

Literature Review of Finance and Share Price LITERATURE REVIEW This study relates to examine the relationship of cash flow from operations, earning and sales with share price and the previous research has predicted the comparative abilities of cash flow, earning and sales but this study is only concerned with the relationship of cash flow, earning and sales with share price. In the finance literature that market forces determine share price equal to the discounted value of a stream of expected future cash flows (Hollister et al., 2002). Cash flows represent amounts investors expect to receive in the form of dividend payments or from the sale of their shares and not necessarily the annual operating cash flows generated by a firm. Consequently, it is in a very broad sense that share price is considered to embody a firms future cash flows. Even if share price is often thought of and evaluated in terms of cash flows, earnings is also known to be extremely important to managers and analysts because of the key information it conveys about future prospects (Brigham and Ehrhardt, 2002). Various researchers examined value in terms of share return that Earnings reflect a stronger correlation with share return than does current operating cash flows (Watts, 1977; Dechow, 1994; Bartov et al, 1997) .It has been shown that earnings better predicts future operating cash flows than does current operating cash flows because accruals in earnings â€Å"offset the negative correlation in cash flow changes to produce earnings changes that are much less negatively serially correlated ( Dechow, et al 1998) that is why earnings, rather than current operating cash flows, tends to be used in firm share valuations. Earnings quality can be affected by sales volatility (Dechow and Dichev (2002) and Francis et al. (2004). By and large the greater the sales volatility, the more unstable is the operating environment. This results in larger estimation errors for accruals and diminished earnings quality. It gives an idea about how monthly sales announcements of major department and discount stores provide information for investors not only for the retail giants but also for their suppliers (Olsen and Dietrich (1985). The sales volume announcements for the retailers furnish information on the future cash flow prospects for their suppliers and, thus, are incorporated into the suppliers share prices. Dharan (1987) examined the comparative abilities of accrual sales and cash collections of sales to predict future cash flows. It is found that when cash realization occurs in a period subsequent to sales realization, cash flow forecasts from earnings based on accrual sales are better than cash flow forecasts from earnings based on cash collections. This is because of accrual sales â€Å"provides information on managements expectations about future cash flows (Dharan, 1987). Greenberg, Johnson, and Ramesh (1986) used 1963-82 compustate data to test the ability of earnings and CFFO to predict future CFFO, for each firm two separate ordinary least squares regression models were used. The first model test used previous earnings against current CFFO (earnings model) the second model used CFFO for lags of 1-5 years against current CFFO (cash flows model).R square for the earnings and cash flows model were compared and the model with the higher R square was determined to be the better predictor. The results showed that earnings outperformed CFFO in predicting future CFFO. It was concluded that the study provides evidence in support of the FASBs assertions that current earnings is a better predictor of future cash flows than is current cash flows. Juan M. Rivara(1996) found out the accuracy and the consensus among forecasters of earnings estimates for U.S. domestic and U.S. multinational corporations, it was observed that the accuracy of earnings forecasts is significantly lower for purely domestic firms than for U.S based multinationals. Like wise the level of consensus in earnings estimates submitted by financial analysts is significantly lower for U.S. domestic than for U.S. multinational firms. The accounting profession requires that firms disaggregate net income into specific components, even though earnings disaggregation is important for assessing firm profitability, there is little empirical evidence that the classification scheme actually improves profitability forecasts by analyzing the accuracy improvements in out-of-sample forecasts of one-year ahead return-on-equity (ROE) to examine the predictive content of earnings disaggregations (Fairfield, Sweeney, Yohn) .The results show that the classification scheme prescribed by the accounting profession does increase the predictive content of reported earnings. It was found forecasting improvements from earnings disaggregation. These improvements go beyond separating extraordinary items and discontinued operations from the other components of earnings. Further disaggregation of earnings (into operating earnings, non-operating earnings and taxes, and special items) improves forecasts of ROE one year ahead. (Ball and Watts (1972), Albrecht, Lookabill McKeown (1977), Watts and Leftwich (1977) and Lev (1983) studied the Earnings ability to predict future earnings studied first or second order autocorrelations and or forecasts over one or two-year horizons and provided evidence to support a random walk model that is uncorrelated earnings changes, However, random walk may not be descriptive of the earnings process Where as Ramesh and Thiagarajan (1989) rejected a random walk earnings model and Lipe and Kormendi (1993) show that higher order, rather than random walk, models are descriptive of market-adjusted earnings time-series process. Finger (1994) found out the earnings ability to predict future earnings and future cash flow from operations1 one through eight years ahead using annual data from1935-87 for 50 firms. I use time-series methods to test firm-specific predictive ability over the entire time period (hereafter in-sample regression tests) and then compare out-of-sample forecast errors to assess earnings ability to improve earnings or cash flow forecasts up to eight years ahead. He found that earnings are a significant predictor of future earnings, in sample, for 88% of the firms. The random walk provides better out-of-sample forecasts than do individually estimated models one year ahead for 52% of the sample firms, Out of sample forecasts show that random walk models outperform individually estimated earnings models for one-year but not for four- or eight-year horizons. Earnings, used alone and with cash flow, are a significant predictor of cash flow for the majority of firms. However, out-of-sample foreca sts show that adding earnings rarely improves cash flow forecasts. Cash flow is a better short-term predictor of cash flow than are earnings, both in and out of sample, and the two are approximately equivalent long-term. The nature of the information contained in the accrual and cash flow components of earnings and the extent to which this information is reflected in stock prices Sloan (1996). It is found that earning performance attributable to the accrual component of earnings exhibits lower persistence than earnings performance attributable to the cash flow component of earnings, hence results also indicated that stock prices act as if investors fixate on earnings, failing to distinguish fully between the different properties of the accrual and cash flow components of earnings. Lorek Willinger (1996) the time series properties and predictive abilities of cash flow data. Results indicate that this model clearly outperforms firm-specific and common-structure ARIMA models as well as a multivariate, cross-sectional regression model popularized in the literature. These findings are robust across alternative cash-flow metrics (e.g., levels, per-share, and deflated by total assets) and are consistent with the viewpoint espoused by the FASB that cash-flow prediction is enhanced by consideration of earnings and accrual accounting data. Bowen, Burgstahler Daley (1986) examined relationships between signals provided by accrual earnings and various measures of cash flow, Findings indicate that Correlations between traditional cash flow measures and alternative CF measures that incorporate more extensive adjustments are low, 2nd the correlations between alternative measures of CF and earnings are, while the correlations between traditional measures of CF and earnings are high. These first two results are consistent with earnings and alternative measures of CF that incorporate more extensive adjustments conveying different signals. Finally, for four out of five cash flow variables, the results are consistent with the hypothesis that random walk models predict CF as well as (and often better than) models based on other flow variables. An exception to this general result is that net income plus depreciation and amortization and working capital from operations appear to be the best predictors of cash flow from operations. Overall there results are not consistent with the FASBs statements that earnings numbers provide better forecasts of future cash flows than do cash flow numbers. Earlier additional information content of cash flows relies primarily on cross- sectional regression models relating both earnings and cash flows to security return metrics that assumes a uniform relation between earnings (cash flow from operations) and security returns across observations. Ali (1994) however, conditions the incremental information content of unexpected earnings and cash flows from operations on their magnitude with respect to price. It is found that changes in earnings (cash flows from operations) are not expected to persist and thus have reduced implications for returns. Cheng, Liu Schaefer (1996) investigated the Earnings Permanence and the Incremental Information Content of Cash Flows from Operations, findings suggest that the incremental information content of accounting earnings decreases, and the incremental information content of cash flows from operations increases, with a decrease in the permanence of earnings. Barth, Cram Nelson investigated the role of accruals in predicting future cash flows and findings proved that disaggregating earnings into cash flow and the major components of accruals significantly enhances earnings predictive ability, findings also showed relation between cash flow next year and current cash flow and each component of accruals is significant and has a sign consistent with prediction. One of two researchers has re examined the association between earnings forecast error and earnings predictability because there is evidence suggesting that deliberate earnings forecast optimism is not an effective mechanism for gaining access to managers information ( Eames et al. 2002; Matsumoto 2002) ,For earnings level to be an important control variable in examinations of the association between forecast error and earnings predictability, there must be associations between earnings level and both forecast error and earnings predictability. Numerous studies report an inverse relation between forecast error and the level of reported earnings ( Brown 2001; Eames et al. 2002; Eames and Glover 2002; Hwang et al. 1996). The association reflects both earnings shocks due to unanticipated events and earnings management. Dechow Dichev suggested a new measure of one aspect of the quality of working capital accruals and earnings, they illustrated the usefulness of analysis in two ways. First, they examined the relation between measure of accrual quality and firm characteristics. The nature of the accrual process suggests that the magnitude of estimation errors will be systematically related to business fundamentals like the length of the operating cycle and variability of operations. It was found that accrual quality is negatively related to the absolute magnitude of accruals, the length of the operating cycle, loss incidence, and the standard deviation of sales, cash flows, accruals, and earnings, and positively related to firm size. Results suggest that these observable firm characteristics can be used as instruments for accrual quality. This is important because the regression based estimation of accrual quality demands long time series of data and the availability of subsequent cash flows, which m akes it costly or infeasible for certain practical applications (e.g quality-of-accruals-based trading strategies). Second they illustrated the usefulness of analysis by exploring the relation between measure of accrual quality and earnings persistence. Firms with low accrual quality have more accruals that are unrelated to cash flow realizations, and so have more noise and less persistence in their earnings. Indeed, they find a strong positive relation between accrual quality and earnings persistence. Although the measure of accrual quality is theoretically and empirically related to the absolute magnitude of accruals, and Sloan (1996) documents that the level of accruals is less persistent than cash flows. Probing further, they found out that accrual quality and level of accruals are incremental to each other in explaining earnings persistence, with accrual quality the more powerful determinant. There are two widely held views regarding managements motivations to managing earnings and each has quite different implications for the predictive usefulness of the resultant numbers .One view is that earnings management is motivated by mangers attempt to sustain the overvaluation of the firms stock price and to enhance managers personal welfare by disguising the true underlying economic performance of the firm (opportunistic perspective). An alternative view is that managers manage earnings to reveal private value-relevant information about the future prospects of a firm (informational perspective). They shown that originally reported (managed) earnings of firms classified as managing earnings for opportunistic reasons are less predictive of future cash flows relative to the restated (unmanaged) numbers. Conversely, they find that originally reported (managed) earnings of firms classified as managing earnings for informational reasons exhibit greater predictive ability with respect to future cash flows relative to restated (unmanaged) numbers. (Badertscher , Collins and lys 2007). Theoretical and empirical work in accounting and finance has documented the importance of firm size when testing the information in security prices with respect to future earnings (Collins et al., 1987) and interested in assessing the information in security prices with respect to the predictive ability of earnings, their finding that price-based-earnings forecasts outperform time-series forecasts by a greater margin for larger firms than smaller firms is of direct interest here. Their result implies that firm-size may help to explain inter-firm differences in the predictive ability of quarterly earnings data and helps to motivate the consideration of firm-size as an independent variable in the current study. Foster et al (1984) report that firm-size independently explains a substantial portion of the variation in post announcement drifts in security returns due to potentially misspecified quarterly earnings expectation models. The magnitude of abnormal returns associated with good or bad news earnings signals is inversely related to firm-size Freeman (1987), speculates that these findings might simply be due to differential time-series properties of the earnings numbers of large and small firms-an uncontrolled factor in his research design-and calls for future research to examine the possibility. Bathke , Lorek Willinger ( 1989) found out differences in the auto regressive parameters of the Foster and Brown and Rozeff ARIMA models across firm-size strata . One-step-ahead quarterly earnings forecasts were generated by a set of best fitting time-series models. Their Tests also indicated that large and medium size firms generated one-step ahead forecasts that were significantly more accurate than smaller firms at the .05 level and they obtained similar predictive findings on the significance of the size-effect in a supplementary analysis of the non seasonal and volatile growth and inconsistent strata membership firms. ChengDana examined the persistence of cash flow components in predicting future cash and the findings were that the cash flow components from various operating activities persist differentially. They found out that the cash related to sales, cost of goods sold, operating expenses and interest persists a great deal into future cash flows; cash related to other has lower persistence; and cash related to taxes has no persistence and then they incorporated accrual components into persistence regression model and found that the persistence of cash flow components are generally higher than those of accruals; however, accrual components do enhance model performance, their findings are consistent with the AICPAs and financial analysts rationale for their recommendation that the financial effects of a companys core and non-core cash flows should be distinguished. Reference Ashiq Ali â€Å" Incremental information content of earnings , working capital from operations and cash flow † Journal of Accounting research†( spring 1994): 61-74 Robert M. Bowen, David Burgstahler, Lane A. Daley â€Å"Evidence on the Relationships between Earnings and Various Measures of Cash Flow † The Accounting Review, Vol. 61, No. 4 (Oct., 1986), pp. 713-725 Richard G. Sloan â€Å"Do Stock Prices Fully Reflect Information in Accruals and Cash Flows about Future Earnings† The Accounting Review, Vol. 71, No. 3 (Jul., 1996), pp. 289-315. Kenneth S. Lorek and G. Lee Willinger â€Å"A Multivariate Time-Series Prediction Model for Cash-Flow Data† The Accounting Review, Vol. 71, No. 1 (Jan., 1996), pp. 81-102 Catherine A. Finger â€Å"The Ability of Earnings to Predict Future Earnings and Cash Flow† Journal of Accounting Research, Vol. 32, No. 2 (Autumn, 1994), pp. 210-22 C. S. Agnes Cheng, Chao-Shin Liu, Thomas F. Schaefer â€Å"Earnings Permanence and the Incremental Information Content of Cash Flows from operations† Journal of Accounting Research, Vol. 34, No. 1 ( Spring, 1996), pp. 173-181. Olsen, C. and J. Dietrich, Vertical Information Transfers: The Association Between Retailers Sales Announcements and Suppliers Security Returns, Journal of Accounting Research, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 144-166, 1985. Juan M. Rivera (1996) â€Å" Prediction Performance of Earnings Forecasts: The Case of U.S. Multinationals.†Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 22, No. 2 (2nd Qtr. 1991), pp. 265-288. Patricia M. Fairfield Richard J. Sweeney Teri Lombardi Yohn â€Å"Accounting classification and predictive content of earning† The Accounting Review, Vol. 71, No. 3 (Jul., 1996), pp. 337-355. BALL, R R.WATTS â€Å"Some Time Series Properties of Accounting Income† Journal of Finance (June 1972): 663-82 Mary E. Barth, Donald P. Cram, Karen K. Nelson â€Å"Accruals and the Prediction of Future Cash Flows †The Accounting Review, Vol. 76, No. 1 (Jan., 2001), pp. 27-58 Michael J. Eames and Steven M. Glover â€Å"Earnings Predictability and the Direction of Analysts Earnings Forecast Errors †Accounting Review, Vol. 78, No. 3 (Jul., 2003), pp. 707-724. Patricia M. Dechow and Ilia D. Dichev â€Å"The Quality of Accruals and Earnings: The Role of Accrual Estimation Errors †The Accounting Review, Vol. 77, Supplement: Quality of Earnings Conference (2002), pp. 35-59. Patricia M. Dechow and Ilia D. Dichev â€Å"The Quality of Accruals and Earnings: The Role of Accrual Estimation Errors †The Accounting Review, Vol. 77, Supplement: Quality of Earnings Conference (2002), pp. 35-59. Brad Badertscher , Daniel W. Collins Thomas Z. Lys â€Å"Earnings Management and the Predictive Ability of Accruals with Respect to Future Cash Flows † Journal of finance, (2007) , PP 01-52. Allen W. Bathke, Jr., Kenneth S. Lorek, G. Lee Willinger â€Å"Firm-Size and the Predictive Ability of Quarterly Earnings Data † The Accounting Review, Vol. 64, No. 1 (Jan., 1989), pp. 49-68 C. S. Agnes Cheng Dana Hollie (1996) â€Å"The Persistence of Cash Flow Components into Future Cash Flows† Journal of finance, pp 1-32.

Contrastive Lexicology Essay

1. Lexicology and linguistics. Contrastive lexicology, object, aim, and tasks. 2. The history of contrastive lexicology, main units and terms. Ukrainian scientists, manuals, observing. 3. Language and vocabulary. The branches of Contrastive Lexicology. 4. Structural aspects of a word: External and Internal structure. Scientific methods to leant English and Ukrainian words in Comparison. 5. The semantic unity of a word. Polysemy: types of semantic component. Sema, Semema, semantic field. 6. The main scientific aspects: syntagmatics and paradigmatics in Contrastive lexicology. 7. Contrastive lexicology and Lexicography. 8. Structure of the vocabulary of modern English and Ukrainian. The main groups of words. Colloquial words, the main stock of English and Ukrainian Vocabulary. 9. Morphemic structure of a word. Morpheme. Allomorph. Morph. 10. English and Ukrainian principles to analyze word structure. Productive and unproductive morphemes. 11. Neologisms, Historicisms and archaisms, their place in English and Ukrainian vocabulary. 12. Etymology as a branch of Lexicology, objective and tasks. Etymological structure of English and Ukrainian vocabulary in comparison. Indo-European element. 13. Word-building in english and ukrainian. Affixation 14. Semantics as a branch of lexicology, its goals and tasks. 15. Etymological structure of English and Ukrainian vocabulary; borrowed and native elements; loan words, Etymological doublets and triplets. 16. Etymology: peculiar features of international words. International words in translation. 17. Denotative and connotative meaning of a word. Bilingual dictionaries in translating and interpreting. Printed and electronic dictionaries. 18. Word-formation: productive ways to derive words in English and Ukrainian: Composition. 19. Word-formation: reduplication, back-formation. 29. General ways to enrich English and Ukrainian vocabulary. Nonce-words, Euphemisms, word-groups with transferred meanings. 35. Semantics: Types of semantic component; the processes of Development and Change of Meaning in English and Ukrainian. 36. Semantics: Kinds of transference (based on resemblance and based on contiguity); broadening and narrowing of Meaning. 37. Synonyms in English and Ukrainian vocabulary; Hypheronyms and Hyponyms. The Dominant Synonyms. 38. Isomophism and allomorphism in contrastive lexicology as basic principles. Branches of Contrastive Lexicology. 39. English and Ukrainian idioms, phraseologisms, usage, way of interpreting. 1. Lexicology and linguistics. Contrastive lexicology, object, aim, and tasks. Lexicology is that part of linguistics which studies words, their nature and meaning, words’ elements, relations between words (semantical relations), words groups and the whole lexicon. LG is a branch of linguistics and has its own aims and methods of scientific research. Its basic task is to study and descript systematically the vocabulary in respect to its origin, development and current use. Linguistics is the scientific study of natural language. Linguistics is narrowly defined as the scientific approach to the study of language, but language can be approached from a variety of directions, and a number of other intellectual disciplines are relevant to it and influence its study. The Contrastive and Comparative LG – their aims are to study the correlation between the vocabularies of 2 or more languages and find out the correspondences between the vocabulary units. The task of Contrastive lexicology is â€Å"to compare linguistic accounts stated, within the same lexicological framework, of the lexical competence necessarily possessed by speakers of the two languages concerned†. Aim: To conduct a comparative-synchronic comparison of lexical items and events, to highlight common features in the lexicon of two languages. Explore lexical linguistic phenomenon (trends words) and discover the peculiarities of the national outlook. Object: lexical units of the two languages. Subject: different aspects (origin of word morphemic structure, lexical change trend values), phenomena or processes (common features). 2. The history of contrastive lexicology, main units and terms. Ukrainian scientists, manuals, observing. The term â€Å"Lexicology† first was introduced in the French D. Diderot and d’Alembert’s encyclopedia in 1765. However, as a separate part of Linguistics, Lexicology appeared relatively recently. At the beginning of 20 century, an American linguist Leonard Bloomfield thought that linguistics in general should not engage in semantics. Ukrainian scientists presented the Kiev and Kharkov school: Ðâ€"Ð »Ã ¾Ã ±Ã'‚Ð µÃ ½Ã ºÃ ¾, ГÐ ¾Ã »Ã'Æ'Ð ±Ã ¾Ã ²Ã' Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¸Ã ¹, Ðâ€"Ð °Ã ¹Ã ²Ã ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ½Ã ¾Ã º, КÐ ¾Ã'€Ã'Æ'Ð ½Ã µÃ'†Ã'Å', БÃ'Æ'Ð ±Ã »Ã µÃ ¹Ã ½Ã ¸Ã º, КÐ ¾Ã ½Ã ¾Ã ½Ã µÃ ½Ã ºÃ ¾. The second half of 19 century. Stylistics, grammar, lexicology are contrastive . 3. Language and vocabulary. The branches of Contrastive Lexicology. Lexicography is the science and art of compiling dictionary. The first book published under the English title Dictionary was Latin-English Dictionary by Sir Thomas Elyot (1538). For a medieval scholar a dictionary was a collection of diction or phrases put together for the use of pupils studying Latin. One of the purposes of dictionary in medieval times was glossing texts and employing synonyms for them. Dictionaries are prepared to serve different practical needs of the people. A reader looks at the dictionary mainly from the following points of view: (1) as a reference book for different types of information on words e.g. pronunciation, etymology, usage etc. this may be called the store house function of the dictionary. (2) as a reference point for distinguishing the good or proper usage from the bad or wrong usage. This is the legislative or the court house function of the dictionary. Branches: The General LG – the general study of words and vocabulary. Linguistic phenomena and properties common to all languages are generally referred as language universals. The Special LG – is the LG of a particular language. That’s the study of and description of its vocabulary and vocabulary units. The Historical LG – the evolution of any vocabulary. It discusses the origin of various words, their change and development, investigates linguistics and extra linguistics forces. The object – its single elements, modifying their structure, meaning and usage. The Contrastive and Comparative LG – their aims are to study the correlation between the vocabularies of 2 or more languages and find out the correspondences between the vocabulary units. The descriptive LG – deals with the vocabulary of a given language at a given stage of its development. LG also studies all kinds of semantic grouping and semantic relations such as synonymy, ant onymy, homonymy, semantic fields. Meaning relations as a whole are dealed within semantics – the Study of meaning. 4. Structural aspects of a word: External and Internal structure. Scientific methods to leant English and Ukrainian words in Comparison. The word can be seen in terms of its internal and external structures. The external structure of the word – its its morphemic composition. It is considered in terms of free and bound morphemes. The Units of external structure are the structure of prefixes, suffixes, roots, foundations, and their combination of lexical items in two languages. The external structure of the word – is a study of Word Formation. Word Formation in English and Ukrainian language has much in common, and words often have similar structure. Considerable Amount of prefixes and suffixes are unique in two languages (writer; student; teacher – Ð ¿Ã ¸Ã' Ã'Å'Ð ¼Ã µÃ ½Ã ½Ã ¸Ã º; Ã' Ã'‚Ã'Æ'Ð ´Ã µÃ ½Ã'‚; Ð ²Ã'‡Ð ¸Ã'‚Ð µÃ »Ã'Å'), part of Ukrainian suffixes (suffix system and the Ukrainian language is much more developed and richer than Engl ish) has not derivational analogy in English (Ã' Ã ¾Ã ½Ã'†Ð µ Ã'â€" Ã' Ã ¾Ã ½Ã µÃ'‡Ð ºÃ ¾, Ã'…Ð ²Ã ¸Ã »Ã ¸Ã ½Ã ° Ã'â€" Ã'…Ð ²Ã ¸Ã »Ã ¸Ã ½Ã ºÃ °). Internal structure of words – its its meaning, views and values of its shades, are seing in part of lexicology called semasiology. Some words has quite clear phonetic motivation: buzz, splash, snore and Ð ´Ã ·Ã ¸Ã ¶Ã'‡Ð °Ã'‚Ð ¸, Ã'…Ð »Ã'ŽÐ ¿Ã °Ã'‚Ð ¸, Ã'…Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ¿Ã'â€"Ã'‚Ð ¸ – and the imitation of sounds of two languages (similar in nature) may be different Ukrainian people hear in snoring Ã'…Ã'€(Ð ¿Ã'€Ð ¸Ã ¼.Ã'€Ð µÃ ´. Ã'‚Ð ¾ Ð ½Ã µ Ã'â€"Ã' Ã º Ð ¿Ã'â€", Ð ° Ã'Æ'Ð ºÃ'€ Ð »Ã'â€"Ã'‚Ð µÃ'€Ð ¸ Ã'…Ã'€), and British people hear s..r. Distributive analysis – a method of language-based learning environments of all possible linguistic units, the words in the text (excluding notional side words).(e.g. man – Adj+N(boring man), work – V+Adv(to work slowly).) Analysis of the direct components – a unit of linguistic analysis by its representation as a nested hierarchy of elements from each ot her, forming a structure. Thus, in the case of non-governmental words we first distinguish two components – non /-governmental, as it is formed from the word non-government, then government / al, and finally govern / ment. Component analysis – a method of linguistic analysis of lexical units, lexical expansion and the value of the minimal semantic components and representation of lexical meaning (e.g. a nose – denotative – Ð ½Ã ¾Ã' , to nose connotative – Ð ¿Ã'€Ð ¸Ã ½Ã'ŽÃ'…Ð ¸Ã ²Ã °Ã'‚Ã' Ã' ). Transform analysis – is to change language unit into a unit with another structure without changing the content(e.g. to give help – to help; to play visit – to come). In the Ukrainian language you can determine the status characteristic phrases Ð ½Ã °Ã ´Ã °Ã ²Ã °Ã'‚Ð ¸ Ð ´Ã ¾Ã ¿Ã ¾Ã ¼Ã ¾Ã ³Ã'Æ' – Ð ´Ã ¾Ã ¿Ã ¾Ã ¼Ã °Ã ³Ã °Ã'‚Ð ¸ (Ð °Ã ºÃ'‚Ð ¸Ã ²Ã ½Ã ¸Ã ¹ Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã ½), Ð ° Ð ¾Ã'‚Ã'€Ð ¸Ã ¼Ã'Æ'Ð ²Ã °Ã'‚Ð ¸ Ð ´Ã ¾Ã ¿Ã ¾Ã ¼Ã ¾Ã ³Ã'Æ' (Ð ¿Ã °Ã' Ã ¸Ã ²Ã ½Ã ¸Ã ¹) there is no one-word expression. 5. The semantic unity of a word. Polysemy: types of semantic component. Sema, Semema, semantic field. The semantic unity of a compound word is often very strong. In such cases we have idiomatic compounds where the meaning of the whole is not a sum of meanings of its components, e.g. to ghostwrite, skinhead, brain-drain etc. In nonidiomatic compounds semantic unity is not strong, e. g., airbus, to bloodtransfuse, astrodynamics etc. Polysemy is the capacity for a sign (e.g., a word, phrase, etc.) or signs to have multiple meanings (sememes), i.e., a large semantic field. Types of Semantic Components: The leading semantic component in the semantic structure of a word is usually termed denotative component. The denotative component expresses the conceptual content of a word.(e.g. lonely, adj. – alone, without company , to glance, v.- to look). It is quite obvious that the definitions only partially and incompletely describe the meanings of their corresponding words. They do not give a more or less full picture of the meaning of a word. To do it, it is necessary to include in the scheme of analysis additional semantic components which are termed connotations or connotative components. Grammatical meaning is a meaning which comes to the fore in the words with different lexical meaning, and brings them into one row: apples, tables, books, birds – grammatical meaning of plurality; was, went, ate, did, slept, knew – grammatical meaning of past tense. Lexical meaning – is a meaning which combines different grammatical forms of a word into one paradigm: to be, was, were, been, is, are; apple, apples, apple’s. Seme – an elementary semantic feature, a minimal unit of meaning. Sememe – a set of semes recognizable in a given word. A semantic field is a technical term in the discipline of linguistics to describe a set of words grouped in a certain way. 6. The main scientific aspects: syntagmatics and paradigmatics in Contrastive lexicology. Syntagmatics – linear (simultaneous) relationship of words in speech as distinct from associative (non-simultaneous) relationship of words in language. Paradigmatics – 1) associative (non-simultaneous) relationship of words in language as distinct from linear (simultaneous) relationship of words in speech (syntagmatics); relation of units in absentia (e.g. synonymic, antonymic relationships); 2) an approach to language when the elements of its system are regarded as associated units joined by oppositional relationship.Word-meaning in syntagmatics and paradigmatics Intralinguistic relations of words are basically of 2 types: syntagmatic and paradigmatic. Syntagmatic relations define the meaning the word possesses when it is used in combination with other words in the flow of speech. Paradigmatic relations are those that exist between individual lexical items which make up one of the subgroups of vocabulary items (sets of synonyms, lexico-semantic groups, etc.). Syntagmatic relations Paradigmatic relations He got a letter. I received a note. She obtained an epistle. 7. Contrastive lexicology and Lexicography. Lexicology is that part of linguistics which studies words, their nature and meaning, words’ elements, relations between words (semantical relations), words groups and the whole lexicon. The Contrastive LG – is a branch of lexicology. Its aim is to study the correlation between the vocabularies of 2 or more languages and find out the correspondences between the vocabulary units. Lexicography is an important branch of linguistics which covers the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. Lexicography is divided into two related disciplines: Practical lexicography is the art or craft of compiling, writing and editing dictionaries. Theoretical lexicography is the scholarly discipline of analyzing and describing the semantic, syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships within the lexicon (vocabulary) of a language, developing theories of dictionary components and structures linking the data in dictionaries, the needs for information by users in specific types of situati on, and how users may best access the data incorporated in printed and electronic dictionaries. 8. Structure of the vocabulary of modern English and Ukrainian. The main groups of words. Colloquial words, the main stock of English and Ukrainian Vocabulary. Compiling the dictionary included a conceptual framework of its own language (lexical, grammatical), and sociolinguistic aspects are closely interrelated. Most vocabulary words gives the collection of one or another language in alphabetical order. There are dictionaries in which words are represented nested system, it means that in a lexical article are all derived words derived from one root word. There are even inversion dictionaries – in the words given them by letter words end.The whole of the word-stock of the English language can be divided into three main layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial layer. The literary and colloquial layers contain a number of subgroups each of which has a property it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. The aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character. The aspect of the colloquial layer is its lively spoken character which makes the layer unstable. The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. That means it is unrestricted in its use. It can be used in all styles of the language. It is this feature that makes the layer the most stable of all. The subgroups of the special literary vocabulary are the following: terms, poetical words, foreignisms and barbarisms(non-assimilated words that are known to everyone(tet-a-tet, Ð ¼Ã µÃ'€Ã' Ã'â€" Ð ±Ã ¾Ã ºÃ'Æ'), archaic words(woe (sorrow), nigh (near)), nonce-words. The subgroups of the special colloquial layer are such: dialectical words, vulgarisms, slang, jargon, professionalisms, nonce-words. 9. Morphemic structure of a word. Morpheme. Allomorph. Morph. The morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of form. A form in these cases a recurring discrete unit of speech. Morphemes occur in speech only as constituent parts of words, not independently, although a word may consist of single morpheme. Words that consist of a root and an affix are called derived words or derivatives and are produced by the process of word building known as affixation (or derivation). The root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus of the word; it has a very general and abstract lexical meaning common to a set of semantically related words constituting one word-cluster, e.g. (to) teach, teacher, teaching. Affixational morphemes include inflectional affixes or inflections and derivational affixes. Inflections carry only grammatical meaning and are thus relevant only for the formation of word-forms. Derivational affixes are relevant for building various types of words. They are lexically always dependent on the root which they modify. An allomorph is a linguistics term for a variant form of a morpheme. The concept occurs when a unit of meaning can vary in sound (phonologically) without changing meaning. It is used in linguistics to explain the comprehension of variations in sound for a specific morpheme. Allomorph is also defined as a positional variant of a morpheme occurring in a specific environment and so characterized by complementary description. Any concrete realization of a morpheme in a given utterance is called a morph. 10. English and Ukrainian principles to analyze word structure. Productive and unproductive morphemes. In most cases the morphemic structure of words is transparent enough and individual morphemes clearly stand out within the word. The segmentation of words is generally carried out according to the method of Immediate and Ultimate Constituents. This method is based on the binary principle, i.e. each stage of the procedure involves two components the word immediately breaks into. At each stage these two components are referred to as the Immediate Constituents. Each Immediate Constituent at the next stage of analysis is in turn broken into smaller meaningful elements. The analysis is completed when we arrive at constituents incapable of further division, i.e. morphemes. These are referred to Ultimate Constituents. The analysis of word-structure at the morphemic level must proceed to the stage of Ultimate Constituents. For example, the noun friendliness is first segmented into the ICs: [frendlÄ ±-] recurring in the adjectives friendly-looking and friendly and [-nÄ ±s] found in a countless number of nouns, such as unhappiness, blackness, sameness, etc. the IC [-nÄ ±s] is at the same time an UC of the word, as it cannot be broken into any smaller elements possessing both sound-form and meaning. Any further division of -ness would give individual speech-sounds which denote nothing by themselves. The IC(Immediate Constituents) [frendlÄ ±-] is next broken into the ICs [-lÄ ±] and [frend-] which are both UCs(Ultimate Constituents) of the word. Morphemic analysis under the method of Ultimate Constituents may be carried out on the basis of two principles: the so-called root-principle and affix principle. According to the affix principle the splitting of the word into its constituent morphemes is based on the identification of the affix within a set of words, e.g. the identification of the suffix -er leads to the segmentation of words singer, teacher, swimmer into the derivational morpheme – er and the roots teach- , sing-, drive-. According to the root-principle, the segmentation of the word is based on the identification of the root-morpheme in a word-cluster, for example the identification of the root-morpheme agree- in the words agreeable, agreement, disagree.By productive affixes we mean the ones, which take part in deriving new words in this particular period of language development. The best way to identify productive affixes is to look for them among neologisms and so-called nonce-words, i. e. words coined and used only for this particular occasion. Unproductive, non-affix morphemes that exist only in bound form are known as â€Å"cranberry† morphemes, from the à ¢â‚¬Å"cran† in that very word.